PK
f9TG deck.json{
"__type__": "Deck",
"children": [
{
"__type__": "Deck",
"children": [],
"crowdanki_uuid": "8ce8417d-7e07-11ec-a023-089e01f8de33",
"deck_config_uuid": "8ce8417e-7e07-11ec-be68-089e01f8de33",
"desc": "",
"dyn": 0,
"extendNew": 0,
"extendRev": 0,
"media_files": [
"1-oxidation-state-formalism-oxidation-is-hypothetical-charge-atom-would-have-if-all-bonds-to-atoms-of-different-ele.gif",
"1413395000.jpg",
"17.9.png",
"187568713.jpg",
"Acid-Base-Reaction.jpg",
"C6H12O6_mol.gif",
"Combustion-Reaction.jpg",
"Decomposition-Reaction-1.png",
"Dilution.png",
"K6otmxHjDl9AKYo0kvaqb8l00LrPys8x7fd03svKjMn41Dd3NFFUQv6jqWrb1C0TURyiDNCkcqWSiLQccca3JrmuRgIzCJRrj6ebvk9skFPsNW3NQYk90O",
"Precipitation.jpg",
"a93ff226fd374594a93ed827c4ad7ca7-ao-1-A.svg",
"a93ff226fd374594a93ed827c4ad7ca7-ao-1-Q.svg",
"a93ff226fd374594a93ed827c4ad7ca7-ao-O.svg",
"beers-law-definition-and-equation-608172_FINAL-20ddc4fef437472db0a0ebe395770c76.png",
"f574961ecc30ebb45ee67a64aeb3ddacdb06d1fd.svg",
"latex-2500cc33b3d56c9497568ee6020afbbe8edecb60.png",
"latex-efcc6aa9b9c589410ad521675e4757a6033f5c9a.png",
"maxresdefault-3cdd6d702cdad8254f6226accebea704dea0d5fd.jpg",
"molal3.jpg",
"molec.jpg",
"paste-020daed51704565ad933156863e08cf712da252d.png",
"paste-62af8f91659a0182ab4a844eb81dd6c88db4adfd.png",
"paste-8a720eb5017dbc40b21ab2b7fd26eef6ef2e7166.png",
"paste-b9952d5ec733024029652ff1fb7f627da8011d13.jpg",
"slide_5.jpg",
"specific-gravity-of-water-1.png",
"tmp9u8jsyn2.png",
"xbalance-chemical-equations.png.pagespeed.ic.mtPzrx5_1V.png"
],
"name": "Section-I:Stoichiometry",
"notes": [
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Dimensional}} analysis is a mathematical conversion from one set of units into another.",
"Note: It involves multiplying a given value by a conversion factor or a series of conversion factors until the target value is finally expressed in the desired units. See TBR Physics for greater detail in units.
"
],
"guid": "B&&s@[L],F",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::density}} of a material or solution is the mass of the sample divided by the volume of the sample.",
"Note: The density of a material is the same for an object on the moon as it on the Earth, because mass is a quantity and not a force.
"
],
"guid": "ox?S&DUBOK",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Specific gravity}} refers to the density of a material relative to the density of water. ",
"Note: See TBR Physics for greater detail in experimentation
"
],
"guid": "G8W5YKmz$Y",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"All conversions involving reactants and/or products must pass through {{c1::moles}}.",
"Note: The concept of a mole is based upon the amount of carbon-12 that is contained in exactly 12.0 grams of carbon
"
],
"guid": "N*TpZ%}v.u",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Elemental}} analysis determines the atomic composistion of an unknown molecule.",
"Note: It is based on the idea that all molecules of the same substance combine atoms of that substance in the same way.
"
],
"guid": "iCj7,4-jF$",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::mass percent}} of a particular element within a compound is found by dividing the mass of that element by the mass of the compound and then converting that fraction into a percentage. ",
"Note: Mass percent can never exceed 100% for any component element.
"
],
"guid": "ps}Ed,k1io",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is the Quick Calculation Technique? (Test Tip){{c1::}}",
"Quick calculations require knowning the values of selected fractions.
Example: One-eleventh is equal to 0.091; thus, eight-elevenths is equal to 8 * (0.091) = 0.728
"
],
"guid": "v[0EO@Vm@P",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is the Narrowing-Down-the Choices Technique?{{c1::}}",
"This technique works through process of elimination. More so, estimation and using the answer choices as numbered from least to greatest (A to D)."
],
"guid": "jIR:8ERVY;",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is the Quick Calculation Technique?{{c1::}}",
"Quick calculations are made much easier if you can convert a demoninator to some easy-to-use number, such as 10, 100, or 1000. "
],
"guid": "mhwfcB@ggo",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"An {{c1::empirial formula}} for a molecule uses the smallest wholenumber ratio of the atoms in the compound.",
"Note: It is the formula that gives the relative numerical values for each element in the molecule in such a way that the numbers in the ratio cannot be reduced without involving fractions.
"
],
"guid": "zc+Note: The molecular formula is found by multiplying the empirical formula by the whole-number ratio of the molecular mass to the empirical mass.
"
],
"guid": "cxvjl_ke7%",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Combustion}} analysis entails determining the mass percent of each component element in an unknown compound.",
"Note: It is used by oxidizing the unknown with excess oxygem (to ensure complete combustion), followed by the separation and collection of all the oxidized products.
"
],
"guid": "w)cbs1O80[",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Addition of solvent to solution is referred to as {{c1::diluation}}.",
"Note: The importance in questions involving dilution and concentration is understanding different units.
"
],
"guid": "F3n<~<{u*5",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Molarity (M)}} is the concentration of a fluid solution defined as the moles of a solutepervolume of solution, where the volume is measured in liters (L).",
"AK Lectures
"
],
"guid": "hA?@Jx`4uu",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Molality (m)}} is the concentration of a fluid solution defined as the moles of solute perkilogram of solvent. ",
"Note: The molality of a solution does not change with temperature, so it is used to calculate the boiling-point elevation and freezing-point depression of solutions containing non-volatile impurities.
"
],
"guid": "ud>qzOvgNK",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Density}} is the concentration of a fluid defined as the mass of solutionper volume of solution. ",
"Note: The density of a solution varies with temperature.
"
],
"guid": "G0?,9}a:VZ",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Dilution}} involves the addition of solvent to a solution, thus resulting in an increase in volume of the solution and a decrease in the concentration of the solute in solution.",
"
",
"Note: Be careful because they may ask volume added rather than asking for the final total volume. Dilution may also be described in terms of fold (based on total volume) or in terms of parts (based on the volume added).
"
],
"guid": "ocIS.n[*MT",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"A solution can be diluted either by adding solvent or another solution to it. The addition of pure solvent is known as {{c1::simple diffusion}}.",
"
"
],
"guid": "DhFkYXd-!R",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is Beer's law? (conceptually) {{c1::}}",
"Beer's law describes the process where the absorbance of light varies directly with concentration, absorbance can be used to determine the concentration of a solute. Here, electromagnetic radiation is passed through a solution, the solue may absorb some of the light. Recall the The Beer-Lambert Law from TBR Physics.
"
],
"guid": "b}{aKalkgs",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"To balance the reaction/equation, keep track of atoms on each side of the reaction. Start with the compound whose atoms are {{c1::least}} present in the reaction. ",
"
"
],
"guid": "Ag@y=qw;Hv",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::limiting reagent}} is the reactant that is exhausted first, not necessarily the reactant that starts with the lowest number of moles. ",
"Note: It is the reactant with the lowest ratio of actual moles to needed moles.
"
],
"guid": "s[x~S0^bj}",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"A reaction that involves two aqueous salts being added together to form spectator ions and a solid salt precipitate that drops out of solution is known as a {{c1::preciptation}} reaction.",
"Note: It may also be referred to as a metathesis reaction or double-displacement reaction. You can recognize this type of reaction by the solid salt on the product side of the equation.
",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
""
],
"guid": "nu[ey3O2-f",
"note_model_uuid": "8cea1611-7e07-11ec-bc67-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"A reaction between an acid (a proton donor) and a base (proton acceptor) forms a {{c1::neutral salt}} and {{c1::water}}.",
"Note: Water-base acid-base reactions can be recognized by the formation of a salt and water on the product side of the equation.
"
],
"guid": "F1pwuF/5WB",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"A {{c1::composition}} reaction involves the combining of reactants to form a product.",
"Note: The number of reactants exceeds the number of products in a combustion reaction.
"
],
"guid": "z1]PYJ>.]P",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"A {{c1::decomposition}} reaction involves reactants decomposing to form multiple products.",
"Tyler DeWitt
"
],
"guid": "u8%I2W6O9s",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What does LeoGer mean?{{c1::}}",
"Loss of Electrons is defined as Oxidation, while Gain of Electrons is defined as Reduction.
"
],
"guid": "dqj$K#xeQQ",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The oxidation states {{c1::must:: must or must not}} change in an oxidation-reduction reaction. ",
"
"
],
"guid": "%#*%z=!*2",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Combustion}} reactions are a special case of oxidation-reduction reactions, where the oxidizing agent is oxygen gas, and the products are oxides.",
"Organic Chemistry Tutor
"
],
"guid": "b88vhk37k]",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-I:Stoichiometry"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Assigning an {{c1::oxidation state}} to an atom is a matter of distributing electrons within a bond based on which atom is more electronegative.",
"
"
],
"guid": "e7k_K|*)wb",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::average atomic mass}} of an element is a weighted average of the masses of all of the isotopes for that element, an average that takes into account abundance. ",
"Organic Chemistry Tutor
"
],
"guid": "M?Vz`*^3x<",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Thomson}} experiment was used to determine the sign of charges.",
"Note: It demonstrated the exsistence of opposite charges in an atom and that charge is a fixed quantity. Focus on the 'reasoning of this experiment rather than recall of details'.
"
],
"guid": "Gfrn}G%{o.",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Milikan oil drop}} experiment was used to determine the magnitude of charges.",
"Note: Very-detailed procedure and approach. Focus on the 'reasoning of this experiment rather than recall of details'.
"
],
"guid": "t77767RNote: HOWEVER, the location of electrons is NOT determined by the Rutherford experiment.Involves a thin strip of gold foil that lies perpendicular to an incoming stream of alpha particles. Focus on the 'reasoning of this experiment rather than recall of details'.
"
],
"guid": "Cu1plK=dXB",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"A {{c1::mass spectrometer}} is designed to measure the charge-to-mass ratio for a cahrged particle.",
"Note: The concept relies on how force depends on mass, so when an equal force is applied to different masses, they accelerate at different rates.
"
],
"guid": "Koa2t&@L{M",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::Heisenberg uncertainity}} principle quantifies the idea that it is not possible simultaneously to identify a particle's position and velocity.",
"
"
],
"guid": "Dyyo#E3EZR",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::Bohr model}}, simply , states that electrons occupy specific circular orbits about the nucleus, and thus the electrons have specific energy levels.",
"AK Lectures
"
],
"guid": "x{C9TV?Sc,",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is the equation used to define the energy of an electron in its principal energy level?
"
],
"guid": "BJGHyJSP=l",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The energy of a photon and its wavelength of light are {{c1::inversely}} proportional.",
"E = hv = Hc/λ
"
],
"guid": "mO6XFbT:-4",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is the equation for energy levels of hydrogen?
"
],
"guid": "xI8#BGIN+4",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is the equation for transistion energy and the wavelength of a photon (for hydrogen!)?
"
],
"guid": "D?rR52a{W=",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"In electronic theory, the first shell is the {{c1::core}} shell, while the outermost shell is the {{c2::valence}} shell.",
"Note: Number of electrons in a shell = 2 (n)2
"
],
"guid": "P=|y62Pi5T",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The net charged exerted upon the valence electrons is referred to as the {{c1:: (Zeff) effective nuclear charge}}.",
"
"
],
"guid": "MEU<`~iJfp",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The magnetic fields generated by electrons revolving about their axis are referred to as either {{c1::spin up or spin down}}. ",
"Note: By convention, electrons are said to fill orbitals spin first, before filing spin down.
"
],
"guid": "y?v.RyDqnF",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"A {{c1::paramagnetic}} species is defined as an atom or molecule that contains at least one unpaired electron.",
"Note: In organic chemistry, paramagnetic compounds are referred to as radicals. An unpaired electron is an electron that has no second electron spin paired with it.
Root word: \"para\" as in besides - words include parabola, parameterize, or paraplegic
"
],
"guid": "gJXcPaBv?y",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"A {{c1::diamagnetic}} species is defined as an atom or molecule that contains no unpaired electrons.",
"Note: All electrons in the atom or molecule are spin-paired, meaning that every electron that is spin up will have a spin down electron sharing its orbital.
"
],
"guid": "p]G$zfVJ]r",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Atomic orbitals}} are three-dimensional pictorial representations of the region where an electron is likely to be found.",
"Note: The electron density map shows that elecrons are found most often near the nucleus. The size of the sphere varies with the electron density map, depending on the atom. The shape of an orbital is defined by the distribution of electrons about the nucleus.
"
],
"guid": "f{;ugE4ge&",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"A {{c1::d}}-orbital has two nodal planes. ",
"Organic Chemistry Tutor
"
],
"guid": "iS7X!$(Tj0",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"A {{c1::p}}-orbital has one node at the nucleus that is part of a nodal plane between the two lobes.",
"Organic Chemistry Tutor
"
],
"guid": "gywuAU1pq6",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Pauli's exclusion}} principle states that no two electrons have the same set of quantum numbers (n,l, ml, ms ).",
"
"
],
"guid": "n~Tdd_A!iZ",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Hund's}} rule states that electrons completely fill lower energy levels before starting to fill higher energy levels. ",
"Organic Chemistry Tutor
"
],
"guid": "n9s.Em-t`g",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Aufbau principle}} states that electrons are added one-by-one to the shells, starting with the lowest energy level, and then into sequentially increasing energy levels.",
"
"
],
"guid": "cp|+GO1wJ!",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Emission (radiation)}} is loss of energy by an element or molecule, resulting in the relaxation of an electron from a higher energy state.",
"Bozeman
"
],
"guid": "ynjtPcTzz[",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The period of time that an electron remains in an elevated energy level is referred to as the {{c1::lifetime}} of the excited state.",
""
],
"guid": "m^H?la{),Y",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The emission spectra shows only the {{c1::emitted}} light.",
"Bozeman "
],
"guid": "o@>#qYBxcv",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::absorption spectra}} show all light except what was absorbed, which appears as a black line, due to the absence of light. They are black lines in a rainbow.",
"Bozeman "
],
"guid": "l]7D1&MyRN",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::Balmer}} series emits photons in the visible range.",
"
"
],
"guid": "LSD1hBG%E]",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::Lyman}} series is a hydrogen spectral series of transitions and resulting ultraviolet emission lines of the hydrogen atom as an electron goes from n ≥ 2 to n = 1 (where n is the principal quantum number), the lowest energy level of the electron.",
"
"
],
"guid": "Dqa[b]#TI%",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::Paschen}} series involves photons in the infrared region of the EM spectrum.",
"
"
],
"guid": "d9V+,^YrJm",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Lewis structure}} account for all of the valence electrons in a molecule.",
"Note: They do not depict the shape of the compound, but do take electron distribution and charges into account.
"
],
"guid": "c)mI6gxRa1",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Formal charges}} are assigned to atoms within a molecule when they have a different numbe of valence electrons than normal.",
"Note: If more electrons than normal than formal charge is positive; if fewer electrons than normal, then formal charge is negative. Organic molecuels often have formal charges on carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen (example: zwitterion form of an amino acid).
"
],
"guid": "w@Ur=^-(bk",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-II:Atomic-Theory"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Since negative charges repel one another, the molecular shape may distort slightly to minimize the repulsion due to electrons in the valence shell. This is called {{c1::valence shell electron repulsion (VSEPR) theory}}.",
"Note: It explains why bond angles are not exactly predicted from the molecualr bonding model.
"
],
"guid": "sw<*KEHtu<",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"As you move from left to right across a period in the periodic table, the effective nuclear charge {{c1::increases}}.",
"AK Lectures
"
],
"guid": "z|0L**iyeI",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"As you descend a family in the periodic table, the valence shell increases, so the distance between the atom's valence electrons and its nucleus {{c1::increases}}.",
"AK Lectures
"
],
"guid": "m^(0;?.k2",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::effective nuclear charge (Zeff)}} is the net charge exerted upon the outermost electrons (valence electrons).",
"Note: the effective nuclear charge increases across a row in the periodic table. It affects how tightly the electrons are held, which affects ionization energy, electron affinity, and atomic radius.
"
],
"guid": "C6bt9eeWW=",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"As we move along the bold arrow,
The atomic size {{c1::decreases (the radius of the atom is defined as the distance between from the center of the nucelus to the exterior of the valence electon cloud) }}
"
],
"guid": "okcations are {{c1::smaller}} than neutral atoms",
"Note: This is because the loss of electrons allows the atom to compact more tightly, given the diminished repulsion associated with the missing electrons.
"
],
"guid": "w|gYG->r?R",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"As a general rule, anions are {{c1::larger}} than neutral atoms.",
"Note: This is because the gain of electrons causes the atom to expand, given the enhanced repulsion associated with the additional electrons.
"
],
"guid": "DK*g@X}3_Q",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::atomic radius}} is the distance from the center of the nucleus to the edge of the valence cloud of electrons.",
"Note: They are measured in picometers.
Note: The radius of an atom decreases as a family in the periodic table is ascended, because the number of electrons shells decrease. The radius of an atom decreases as a period in the periodic table is scanned from left to right, because the effective nuclear charge increases.
"
],
"guid": "O+DYTs?x2l",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Ionization}} is the process of losing an electron from the valence shell.",
"Note: The energy required to remove the outer-most electron from the valence shell when the element is in the gas phase is known as ionization energy.
",
"Note: Within a row in the periodic table, ionization energy increases as the atomic number increases. Ionization energy for an element generally increases as you move left to right in the periodic table.
IMPORTANT: Pay attention to IONS (be very careful!)
"
],
"guid": "I&5_!^gs3f",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::second ionization}} energy is the energy associated with losing the second electron, which takes element from +1 to +2. ",
"Khan Academy
"
],
"guid": "xiRt{?m^;/",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Electron affinity}} measures the tendency of an element to gain an electron.",
"Note: It is a measurement of the energy absorbed or released when an electron is added into the valence shell.
",
"Note: A more negative number corresponds to a greater electron affinity, because a negative value refers to energy released upon the gain of the electron. Severak factors influence electron affinity so the trend across a period is erratic.
"
],
"guid": "P7&fd|}sB$",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Electronegativity}} is formally defined as the ability of an atom to attract towards itself the electrons within a chemical bond.",
"Note: Electronegativity is related to both ionization energy and electron affinity.
",
"Note: The electronegativity of an atom increases as the periodic table is ascended, because as the number of electronic shells decreases, causing the attraction to the nucleus to increase
Additional-Note: The electronegativity of atom increases as the periodic table is transversed from left to right, because the effective nuclear charge increases. It has no exceptions.
"
],
"guid": "pgss`Va3Kz",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Columns}} in the periodic table (families) contain elements that have the same valence electron count and thus show similiar chemical reactivity. ",
"
"
],
"guid": "yi.tv^^t}a",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Alkali metals}} are group I metals in the first column of the periodic table. They have ns^1 valence shell.",
"Note: As neutral elements they are strong reducing agents, because they readily lose an electron to become a +1 cation.
"
],
"guid": "F3(_)|1d9H",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Alkaline earth metals}} are group II metals from the second column of the periodic table. Their valence shell is ns^2. ",
"Note: They are strong reducing agents, because they readily lose two electrons to become a +2 cation with a filled octet.
"
],
"guid": "Kg!*pHRQFi",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Chalcogens}} are metalloids and nonmetals from the sixth column of the periodic table.",
"Note: The common feature is that valence shell is ns^2 n p^4. As neutral elements, they are oxidizing agents, because they gain two electrons to become a -2 anion with a filled octect.
"
],
"guid": "oH&H%nG@Gx",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Halogens}} are nonmetals from the seventh column of the periodic table.",
"
Note: Their valence shell is ns^2 np^5. As neutral elements, they are strong oxidizing agents, because they readily gain an electron to become a -1 anion with a filled octect.
"
],
"guid": "n|eSw~%w,{",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-III:Periodic-Trends"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Noble gases}} are nonmetals from the eighth (and last) column of the periodic table.",
"Note: Their valence shell is complete at ns^2 np^6. For the most part, they form no bonds and exist as monoatomic atoms.
"
],
"guid": "g66*DHbFln",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Bonding electrons are viewed as being completely associated with the {{c1::more}} electronegative atom. ",
"Note: Within a bond, the more electronegative atom is considered to take all of the electrons, while the less electronegative atom is considered to get none of the bonding electrons.
"
],
"guid": "ILWm*w4Xwj",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Determining the oxidation state of an atom within a molecule requires comparing the electronegativity of {{c1::the atom of interest}} with the electronegativity of {{c1::all atoms to which it is bonded}}",
"Note: The oxidation state is a sum of these bonding values.
"
],
"guid": "n|JU=6F,G$",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Oxygen usually has an oxidation state of {{c1::-2}} (except in molecular oxygen, when it's 0 and peroxides, when it's -1)",
"
"
],
"guid": "o6}OKsuQSJ",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Hydrogen usually has an oxidation state of {{c1::+1}} (except in hydrides, when it's -1 and molecular hydrogen, when it's 0).",
"
"
],
"guid": "M7q/j/^pKJ",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Alkali metals (group I metals) usually have an oxidation state of {{c1::+1}}",
"
"
],
"guid": "QnMqeMh?Yq",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Alkaline earth metals (group II metals) usually have an oxidation state of {{c1::+2}}",
"
"
],
"guid": "rnu;2S[Hc:",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Halogens usually have an oxidation state of {{c1::-1}}",
"
"
],
"guid": "wu6}4gj!]n",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Oxidation-reduction}} reactions involve the transfer of electrons from the reducing agent (reductant) to the oxidizing agent (oxidant).",
"Note: The consequence of electron transfer in a chemical reaction is a change in the oxidation states of at least two atoms.
"
],
"guid": "M.Z=(R/F8d",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"If the oxidation stateincreases due to the loss of electrons, then that process is {{c1::oxidation}}. If the oxidation statedecreases due to the gain of electrons, then that process is {{c2::reduction}}.",
"
"
],
"guid": "tNd*lqZbz!",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Oxidation}} is a loss of electrons by an atom, resulting in an increase in oxidation state.",
"Note: OIL-RIG or Leo the red cat say 'GER'. The loss of electrons is oxidation, gain of electrons is reduction, and reduction occurs at the cathode.
"
],
"guid": "f?J!bV)3n1",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Reduction}} is a gain of electrons by an atom, resulting in a decrease in oxidation state.",
"Note: OIL-RIG or Leo the red cat say 'GER'. The loss of electrons is oxidation, gain of electrons is reduction, and reduction occurs at the cathode.
"
],
"guid": "x_@D|Q[E%j",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Oxidizing}} agent is the reactant doing the oxidizing, getting reduced in the process.",
"Note: OIL-RIG or Leo the red cat say 'GER'. The loss of electrons is oxidation, gain of electrons is reduction, and reduction occurs at the cathode.
"
],
"guid": "pLEl2PB>]M",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Reducing}} agent is the reactant doing reducing, getting oxidized in the process.",
"Note: OIL-RIG or Leo the red cat say 'GER'. The loss of electrons is oxidation, gain of electrons is reduction, and reduction occurs at the cathode.
",
"",
"",
"",
"",
""
],
"guid": "onD&482RV-",
"note_model_uuid": "8cea1611-7e07-11ec-bc67-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"From an organic chemistry and biochemistry perspective, oxidation is often the gain of bonds to {{c1::oxygen}} and/or the loss of bonds to {{c1::hydrogen}}",
"
"
],
"guid": "h[`%:yPJ",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"As a general rule, NADH reduces {{c1::carbonyls}} while FADH2 reduces {{c2::alkene double bonds}}. ",
"Note: A great example is glycolysis, breakdown of a six-carbon molecule with a carbonyl group into two three-carbon molecules. Because it's a breakdown (catabolic process therefore oxidation), it requires an oxidizing agent.
"
],
"guid": "e?]>i*!!$B",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The bridge method involves {{c1::connecting}} atoms that have changed {{c1::oxidation}} states and {{c1::determining}} the number of {{c1::electrons}} that have been exchanged. ",
"Note: The half-cell method involves breaking the reaction into two subreactions: oxidation and reduction. In either method, you start by determining the oxidation states of atoms within the reactant and product molecules, you balance the reaction electronically by having equal numbers of electrons involved in the oxidation and reduction half-reactions, and you balancecharges and atoms last.
"
],
"guid": "gLQf)Ghalf-cell method involves breaking the reaction into two subreactions: {{c1::oxidation and reduction.}}",
"Note: The bridge method involves connecting atoms that have changed oxidation states and determining the number of electrons that have been exchanged. In either method, you start by determining the oxidation states of atoms within the reactant and product molecules, you balance the reaction electronically by having equal numbers of electrons involved in the oxidation and reduction half-reactions, and you balancecharges and atoms last.
"
],
"guid": "H)bmQ{.F{*",
"note_model_uuid": "8cf3192a-7e07-11ec-8eba-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"In electrochem, energy is released in the form of {{c1::electrical flow}}.",
"
"
],
"guid": "AKF^SUjz5I",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Current}} is the result of a potential difference (voltage) between two points that have an electrically conducting medium between them.",
"AK Lectures
"
],
"guid": "M_T6AQpMz0",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Electrons flow from the species with the{{c1:: lower}} electron affinity to the species with the {{c1::greater}} electron affinty.",
"Note: We calculate the energetics of the reaction based on electromotive force (emf).
"
],
"guid": "Er@bP?H!Jy",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Electromotive force is a {{c1::voltage}} (has many tables associated with it's half-reactions)",
"AK Lectures
"
],
"guid": "JBelUQJreduction of two protons (H+) to form hydrogen gas (H2) is defined as the {{c1::reference standard}}, and assigned an emf of {{c2::zero}} volts. ",
"Note: The energetics of half-cells are measured relative to the reduction of hydronium into hydrogen. "
],
"guid": "c*5Sw)y.]V",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Any compound that can be reduced more favorably than a proton has a {{c1::positive}} reduction potential. ",
"Note: Likewise, any compound that can be oxidizedmore favorably than hydrogen gas has a positive oxidation potential. Any compound for which oxidation is less favorable than hydrogen gas has a negative oxidation potential.
"
],
"guid": "c&KfC{!boi",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Any compounds for which reduction is less favorable than a proton has a {{c1::negative}} reduction potential. ",
"Note: Likewise, any compound that can be oxidizedmore favorably than hydrogen gas has a positive oxidation potential. Any compound for which oxidation is less favorable than hydrogen gas has a negative oxidation potential.
",
"Note: It is the sum of oxidation half-reaction potential and the reduction half-reaction potential. The values for ℰ are listed in terms of voltage, which is independent of the number of electrons in the reaction.
"
],
"guid": "bgVr3~dRRA",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The greater the electron affinity, the {{c1::greater}} the reduction potential. Likewise, a lower ionization energy corresponds to a {{c1::greater}} oxidation potential. ",
"
"
],
"guid": "N{:Cu:2B^r",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The energy associated with an electrochemical cell depends on the number of {{c1::electrons}}, unlike the electromotive force (cell potentials).",
"
"
],
"guid": "Jk-6N6699x",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is the equation for free energy in an electrochemical cell?
[$$]\\Delta G_{reaction} = {{c1:: -n F \\varepsilon_{cell} }}[/$$]
"
],
"guid": "f*~.3$C5V(",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"A positive electromotive force (cell voltage) is associated with a {{c1::favorable}} oxidation-reduction reaction, while a negative free energy change is associated with a {{c1::favorable}} oxidation-reduction reaction.",
"AK Lectures "
],
"guid": "pA]O^^[qf/",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Oxidation occurs at the {{c1::anode}}, therefore, electrons flow away from the {{c1::anode}}. ",
"Organic Chemistry Tutor "
],
"guid": "ts!`J%`o!r",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Reduction occurs at the {{c1::cathode}}, therefore, electrons flow towards the {{c1::cathode}}.",
"Organic Chemistry Tutor "
],
"guid": "mQir-jx*5k",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Cells are {{c1::cyclic}}, therefore, ions must flow to balance the charge difference caused by electron flow.",
""
],
"guid": "x+93HW|ipL",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Anions migrate towards the {{c1::anode}} and cations migrate towards the {{c1::cathode}} through electric fields",
"Organic Chemistry Tutor "
],
"guid": "K|O3|Tcn.B",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Cathodes have a {{c1::positive}} core and accumulate {{c1::negative}} charge of their surface, as current flows.",
"Organic Chemistry Tutor "
],
"guid": "P>k:`L;!=T",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Anodes have a {{c1::negative}} core and accumulate {{c1::positive}} charge on their surface, as current flows.",
"Organic Chemistry Tutor "
],
"guid": "i9}~YAH:+=",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"List 3 universal rules for electrical circuits, electric fields, and electochemical cells.",
"1. Electrons flow from the anode to the cathode
2. Cations migrate through electric fields to the cathode
3. Anions migrate through electric fields to the anode
"
],
"guid": "Fm1L=#%;;9",
"note_model_uuid": "8cf3192a-7e07-11ec-8eba-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::salt bridge}} (or porous membrane in some cells) allows for the flow of ions (specifically anions). ",
"Note:Salt bridges are not made of salt. They contain an aqeous solution, held in by a membrane, through which ions can diffuse from one-half cell into the other half-cell.
"
],
"guid": "v+>L[UN[$5",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Galvanic}} cells release energy in the form of electrical flow. They are spontaneous cells with ℰ° > 0. ",
"Organic Chemistry tutor
"
],
"guid": "c0^V]`>-kq",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Electrolytic}} cells are used for the storage of electrical potential, as is seen when recharging a battery. They are non-spontaneous cells with ℰ° < 0 and an applied voltage present to power the cell.",
"Organic Chemistry Tutor "
],
"guid": "G)`dPXLj!=",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What are two ways to increase the voltage for a galvanic cell?",
"1. The concentrations of the ions in the cathode solution can be increased
2. The concentration of the ions in the anode can be decreased
Note: The more a reaction can proceed in the forward direction, the greater its voltage.
"
],
"guid": "r?2]Yr5R(u",
"note_model_uuid": "8cf3192a-7e07-11ec-8eba-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"In an electrolytic cell, the applied voltage must {{c1::exceed}} the natural voltage in order to force the reaction to proceed in the reverse direction.",
"Note: If the applied voltage is not high enough, then the reaction does not proceed in the reverse direction, and no charge is stored.
"
],
"guid": "tR=9h6u}!`",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Concentration}} cells are cells in which electrochemical potential can be generated when an anode and cathode contain the same species, but at different concentrations.",
"Note: As a cell runs down, the voltage drops because reactants are depleted
"
],
"guid": "MmmNVRiLCr",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is the Nerst Equation in terms of R,T, n and F?
",
"Note: Conceptually this equation is useful for determing relative voltages of different electrochemical cells. The nerst term for concentration is on the milivolt scale, which is useful for cell physiology.
",
"Note: Conceptually this equation is useful for determing relative voltages of different electrochemical cells. The nerst term for concentration is on the milivolt scale, which is useful for cell physiology.
"
],
"guid": "u3=c$#6d]T",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Batteries}} are essentially a galvanic cell or a group of galvanic cells in series.",
"Note: By using a reversible oxidation-reduction reaction, a battery can act either as a galvanic cell or an electrolytic cell. Batteries have a membrane that is highly selective, so that only spectator ions can pass.
"
],
"guid": "xIO0#qPcix",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Fluorescent}} tubes work by creating a potential difference between two plates. ",
"Note: They use alternating current. If direct current were used, then each plate would retain the same charge. For the tube to function, the ions must move back and forth, which occurs due to alternating current. Thus they produce pulsing light.
"
],
"guid": "mFMJcjYAz1",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"In {{c1::heating coils}}, conventional heaters function by having a coiled wire through which current passes.",
"Note: Coils are employed to maximize surface area. Heat is transferred only at the interface surface mediums, so more surface area allows for more heat transfer.
"
],
"guid": "H]YA,r^DWA",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Incandescent}} light bulbs convert flow into light by passing current through a resistor in a vaccum.",
"Note: The bulb emits electromagnetic radiation of many frequencies. They are spherical to maintain their structural stability.
"
],
"guid": "BiV45WHWXm",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Electric {{c1::motors}} function by means of a magnetic fieldinduced by electrical flow.",
"Note: When current flows through a loop, a magnetic field with specific orientation is generated. A torque can be extered upon the loop by allowing the induced field to interact with an external, stationary magnetic field. (The loop may be a series of loops comprising a solenoid - see TBR Physics for details)
"
],
"guid": "NPM7Epplication of a voltage (addition of electrical energy) to carry out an overall unfavorable process.",
"Note: This is what an electrolytic cell does as well. The goal of an electrolytic cell is to generate less favorable compounds (not store charge!)
"
],
"guid": "C`,@J<-k/c",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Electroplatting}} is the process of reducing ions in solution onto the surface of a conducting material.",
"Note: It requires a voltage source so that the current can be controlled. It is used to maximize the surface area of a catalytic metal.
Side-Note: Recall from organic chemistry the hydrogenation of an alkene employed platinum metal on a carbon support Pt(C).
"
],
"guid": "u&9-/I|)Mm",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-IV-Electrochem"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Galvanizing}} involves the addition of a more reactive metal (sacrificial metal) to be preferentially oxidized over the metal being preserved.",
"Note: Naturally metals exposed to the environment will oxidize over time (galavanzing prevents this)
",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
"",
""
],
"guid": "h`w/r14W3z",
"note_model_uuid": "8cea1611-7e07-11ec-bc67-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Gas pressure}} is defined as the force per unit area exerted by a gas through collisions against a defined area of the container wall.",
"Note: The standard unit for pressure is atmospheres
"
],
"guid": "E>1Ki_?!S[",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Collision frequency}} is defined as the rate at which molecules in the gas system collide with each other and with the wall of the container.",
"Note: All of these changes result in an increase in the number of collisions experienced by a molecule within the system in a given period of time.
"
],
"guid": "d#-tlhT9f{",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Collision force}} is defined as the force exerted by a gas particle during collsion between it and the container wall.",
"Note: The collision force can be increased by increasing the temperature, because greater temperature imparts greater velocity, and thus greater momentum, to each particle.
"
],
"guid": "jRNote: The standard unit of volume is liters.
"
],
"guid": "vk+2/m-A@z",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::concentration}} of a gas is the number of gas particles per unit volume in a container.",
"Note: As a gas is compressed, it becomes more concentrated
"
],
"guid": "cQx;9Q1Gcw",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::mean free path}} is defined as the average distance a particle can travel before colliding with another particle. ",
"Note: It is the microscopic equivalent of concentration
"
],
"guid": "PK/-~#-V#|",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Temperature}} is a measure of the total kinetic energy of a system.",
"Note: Kelvin is a better unit than celsius for gas questions
"
],
"guid": "nwj+x4wu:*",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Average kinetic energy}} of a system refers to the mean energy of a particle in that system",
"AK Lectures
"
],
"guid": "h3hR@Jk98,",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"148e65b0560b40ba9dfc82f0200bf48b-oa-1",
"List the four assumptions for an a gas (Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gas)",
"",
"",
"",
"AK Lectures ",
"",
"",
"",
"",
""
],
"guid": "jOgb!TEWIm",
"note_model_uuid": "8cea1611-7e07-11ec-bc67-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"As a general rule, {{c1::lighter}} gas molecules have greater average speeds than the {{c1::heavier}} ones, but less momentum.",
""
],
"guid": "kp6x$f9_q:",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"In a gas system, not all particles have the same kinetic energy. There is instead a random distribution of energies, known as {{c1::Boltzmann's distribution}}.",
"
"
],
"guid": "LC!:x>XSja",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"An {{c1::ideal}} gas is said to have molecules that occupy no space and exert no force upon one another.",
"AK Lectures
"
],
"guid": "G/{_h#eP|v",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"A {{c1::real}} gas exhibits intermolecular forces, has particles of microscopic volume that transfer energy upon collision. ",
"Ali
"
],
"guid": "cIQN3C,[lf",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is the equation for the pressure for an ideal gas?
[$$]P_ {\\text {ideal} } = {{c1:: P _ { \\text{observed } } + a \\frac{n^2}{V^2} }} [/$$]
",
"a = empirical value for each gas (may think as an attraction coefficient)
"
],
"guid": "mBO_]Ali "
],
"guid": "MGy`S_zrk]",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Avogadro's}} law deals with the relationship between moles of gas and volume.",
"Note: Avogadro was into counting big numbers, so his law focuses on the number of molecules. Derived from PV=nRT.
"
],
"guid": "sTN(OZL=q=",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Boyle's}} law deals with the relationship between pressure and volume.",
"Note: Big Boy Boyle sat on his lunch and smashed it (decreased the volume of his sandwhich), by increasing the pressure on it. Derived from PV=nRT. This law applies under isothermal conditions. The volume and pressure are inversely proportional to each other.
"
],
"guid": "n==Z|`|ew<",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Charles's}} law deals with the relationship between temperature and volume.",
"Note: Good ol' Chuck overheated his popcorn and it scattered all over (increased its volume). Derived from PV=nRT. The volume is directly proportional to temperature, under constant pressure (isobaric conditions) and constant moles (closed system).
"
],
"guid": "L1IbuljT[",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Partial}} pressure is the independent pressure exerted by a gas within a mixture.",
"Note: The notion of partial pressurestems from the concept that you may treat different components of a gaseous mixture independently. A gas system can be composed of one pure gas or it can be composed of a mixture of gases.
"
],
"guid": "ID}?e![ae@",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is the equation for calculating the partial pressure from total pressure?
"
],
"guid": "mblAIiNk<1",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Gas pressure is measured in units called {{c1::torrs}}, where 1 {{c1::torr}} is the pressure necessary to raise mecury by 1 mm in an evacuated column. ",
"Note: It is important for a manometer (an instrument used to measure and indicate pressure)
"
],
"guid": "rP17SEM/UL",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"For a manometer, what is the equation for the pressure difference between any connected columns?
[$$]\\Delta P = {{c1:: \\rho g \\Delta h }} [/$$]
",
"ΔP = pressure difference between any connected columns
"
],
"guid": "i{YV6MrC3H",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is the equation for Graham's law for gas flow?
"
],
"guid": "JnLY>%g>6-",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is the equation to determine relative speeds for particles of the same gas at two different temperatures?
",
""
],
"guid": "xf(ph4=,=E",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-V:Gases"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Diffusion}} describes the dispersion of a particular gas through a container and is concentration-dependent, proceeding rapidly when the mean free path is large and the average kinetic energy is greater.",
"
"
],
"guid": "MY4q_ghpn&",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Liquids}} are more energetic than solids, yet not as energetic as gases.",
"Note: Their kinetic energy is in the translational, vibrationalm and rotational forms. The molecules of a liquid do change their positions.
"
],
"guid": "Q[s&;c6WSN",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Gases}} have the most kinetic energy of the three common phases.",
"Note: It exists in the translational, vibrational, and rotational forms.The molecules of a gas rapidly change their positions.
"
],
"guid": "xIJ3Ja`Z5$",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Phase changes occur with changes in {{c1::temperature}} or {{c1::pressure}}, not just changes in {{c1::temperature}}.",
"Note: The most important features of the phase change section are the applications of phase changes.
"
],
"guid": "M/state of matter having both a definite shape and a definite volume.",
"Note: The molecules do not change position, resulting in a fixed structure, whose molecules are in contact with neighboring molecules at all times.
"
],
"guid": "Q32(%>HYl-",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Liquid}} is a state of matter having a definite volume, but no definite shape.",
"Note: The molecules change position, resulting in continous random motion, and the molecules remain in contact with neighboring molecules at all times.
"
],
"guid": "NqP{Ws_>Ge",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Solids have repeating structural subunits referred to as {{c1::unit}} cells, since they are arranged in a lattice structure.",
"Note: This lattice structure may be referred to as crystal structure.
"
],
"guid": "JR6+.xPk|_",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Liquids}} typically have the highest heat capacity of the three commonn phases, and {{c1::liquids}} are compressible.",
"
"
],
"guid": "mmx00F=8=Y",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"A liquid's density decreases as the temperature {{c1::increases (because volume increases)}}, with the exception of water from 0 to 4 degrees celsius. ",
"
"
],
"guid": "kx)T_9(8]C",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Surface tension}} is the resistance of a liquid to an increase in its surface area.",
"Note: It generally increases as the intermolecular forces or molecular mass increase.
"
],
"guid": "lm3>Iwk>VB",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Viscosity}} is the resistance of a liquid to flow.",
"Note: It can be observed as the resistance to flow by an object through the liquid. May be thought as fluid friction (see TBR Physics for details)
"
],
"guid": "B:tA42%zW/",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Isothermal}} are conditions where the temperature of the system does not change.",
"AK Lectures
"
],
"guid": "dznk`itp.]",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Isobaric}} are conditions where the pressure of the system does not change.",
"AK Lectures
"
],
"guid": "vxm]K&BWY(",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Isochoric}} are conditions where the volume of the system does not change",
"AK Lectures
"
],
"guid": "NUD}nU@=^P",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Adiabatic}} are conditions where the system is perfectly insulated, so that heat neither enters nor exits the system",
"AK Lectures
"
],
"guid": "AX99K>O8,I",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"A {{c1::supercritical fluid (SCF)}} is any substance at a temperature and pressure above its critical point, where distinct liquid and gas phases do not exist, but below the pressure required to compress it into a solid.",
"AK Lectures
"
],
"guid": "d$uL]^cOWa",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The normal boiling point is the temperature at which a material boils when the pressure is {{c1::1.00}} atm",
"AK Lectures
",
"1. Water at its liquid form is denser than its solid form, and it is denset at 4 degree celsius. The solid can be compressed into a liquid under relatiely mild conditions
(The fact that water is denset at 4 degrees celsius results in the presence of the warmest water being at the bottom of a partially frozen lake)
2. Water has an extremely high boiling point for a compound with such a low molecular mass.
3. Water has the denset hydrogen bonding per molecule of any compound.
"
],
"guid": "fXDD8r4&0?",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What type of curve is drawn before?
{{c1::Heating Curve}}
",
"To generate a heating curve, a material is heated or cooled at a constant rate under isobaric conditions over a broad temperature range, and the temperature is recorded as a function of the heat added (or removed).
"
],
"guid": "Pn>M+g5PBm",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Vapor pressure}} above a liquid is defined as force per unit area (F/A) above the surface of a liquid exerted by molecules formed upon evaporation of the liquid.",
"Note: The vapor pressure of a liquid is simply the partial pressure exerted by the gas molecules formed by evaporation from the surface of the liquid, when it is in equilibrium with the gas molecules condensing back into liquid.
"
],
"guid": "dQr![LmY6-",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is a general rule for vapor pressure of a system? (and heat of vaporization)
{{c1::Pvapor increases a temp increases; Pvapor decreases as ΔHvaporization increases}}
",
"AK Lectures "
],
"guid": "h/|W#O*/n&",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Vapor pressure increases as the temperature increases, but in a {{c1::non-linear}} fashion",
"
"
],
"guid": "z5~O1-s{=(",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is the relationship between boiling point, enthalpy of vaporization, volatility, and vapor pressure?
{{c1::ΔHvaporization ↑; Voltality ↓; Boiling Point ↑; Vapor Pressure ↓}}
"
],
"guid": "PG4Y$@loIp",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::boiling point}} is defined as the temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure.",
"AK Lectures
"
],
"guid": "QW#KHs~6Wn",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The boiling point of a compound is defined in two ways:
{{c1::
1. The boiling point is the temperature above which a substance may not exist as a liquid
2. The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure
"
],
"guid": "GO;xDiJffE",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The boiling point of a compound can be altered either by varying the {{c1::atmospheric pressure}} or by varying the {{c2::intermolecular forces}}.",
"Note: Boiling point decreases as the atmospheric pressure above a liquid decreases. Boiling point increases as the atmospheric pressure above a liquid increases. Boiling point increases as soluble impurities are added to solution.
Side-Note: Understand examples of pressure cooker (increase atmospheric pressure) and vaccumm distillation (decrease atmospheric pressure)
"
],
"guid": "GTR<44JEDI",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Boiling point decreases as the atmospheric pressure above a liquid {{c1::decreases}}.",
"Note: Boiling point decreases as the atmospheric pressure above a liquid decreases. Boiling point increases as the atmospheric pressure above a liquid increases. Boiling point increases as soluble impurities are added to solution.
"
],
"guid": "vH-CHu(2jw",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Boiling point increases as the atmospheric pressure above a liquid {{c1::increases}}. ",
"Note: Boiling point decreases as the atmospheric pressure above a liquid decreases. Boiling point increases as the atmospheric pressure above a liquid increases. Boiling point increases as soluble impurities are added to solution.
"
],
"guid": "Cwx6%ARbNb",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Boiling point increases as {{c1::soluble impurities}} are added to solution.",
"Note: Boiling point decreases as the atmospheric pressure above a liquid decreases. Boiling point increases as the atmospheric pressure above a liquid increases. Boiling point increases as soluble impurities are added to solution.
"
],
"guid": "nI,x8w~BO=",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Raoult's}} law states that the vapor pressure above a solution of two or more miscible liquids depends on the mole fraction of each compound in solution.",
"Note: The concept of this theory is that the mole fraction of a compound corresponds to the percentage of the surface of the liquid mixture due to that compound
"
],
"guid": "e0w1kp#|Ne",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The total vapor pressure above a solution consisting of a mixture of two or more liquids is the {{c1::sum}} of the individual vapor pressures of each component liquid.",
"[$$]P_{\\text {vapor total } } = P_{\\text {vapor A } } + P_{\\text {vapor B } } + P_{\\text {vapor C } } + ... [/$$]
Note: At the boiling point of the solution, the total vapor pressure of the components equals the atmospheric pressure (yet there is not a single pure compound in the vapor)
"
],
"guid": "EVD?@d=+M]",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Distillation}} can be used to remove a liquid from a solution. ",
"Note: To do so, the liquid is first converted into vapor, and then the vapor is allowed to flow up a distilling column. Once at the top of the column, it can either return to solution or take a new pathway.
"
],
"guid": "Qq((7GEC4C",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Fractional distillation}} is where distillation does not become evident until a series of evaporation and condensation cycles have transpired. ",
"
Note: In fractional distillation, the distilling column has additional surface area, either from packing the column with an inert material, such as glass beads, or by increasing the length of the distilling column
"
],
"guid": "pgoV}T}S(@",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Collagtive}} properties are properties of a solution that are affected by the concentration of a solute impurity.",
"Note: Colligative properties include boiling point elevation (the same as vapor pressure reduction), freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure.
"
],
"guid": "n|F~(DVAnW",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"{{c1::Boiling point elevation}} occurs where the boiling point of a solution increases with the addition of impurities.",
"Note: In the case of a saltwater solution, water has stronger attraction to the ionic impurities than it does to other water molecules.
"
],
"guid": "x)RvjwAQ=R",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is the equation used to calculate the increase in boiling point when solute is added to a solution?
[$$]\\Delta T_b = {{c1::k_b \\cdot i \\cdot m }} [/$$]
",
"kb = a constant for the solvent
i = van't hoff factor (ionizability constant- essentially the number of ions that form upon dissolving)
m = molality
The kb for water is 0.51 °C kg/mole. The gamma term describes solute, which can be referred to as activity coefficient.
"
],
"guid": "n-LkW0<`mv",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Freezing point decreases as {{c1::soluble impurities}} are added to solution.",
"Note: The freezing point of a solution can be altered by varying the intermolecular forces (which in essence varies ΔHfusion).
"
],
"guid": "Q34y;jX{s3",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"What is the equation used to calculate the decrease in freezing point when solute is added to a solution?
[$$]\\Delta T_f = {{c1:: k_f \\cdot i \\cdot m }} [/$$]
",
"kf = a constant for the solvent
i = van't hoff factor (ionizability constant- essentially the number of ions that form upon dissolving)
"
],
"guid": "+EWY*qVjI",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Water has a tendency to flow from solutions of {{c1::high water concentration (lower solute concentration)}} to solutions of {{c1::lower water concentration (high solute concentration}} to reach equal concentrations.",
"
"
],
"guid": "Mpa&xe4`6U",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Pressure differences cause fluids to flow, and the driving force causing water to flow is known as {{c1::osmotic pressure}}.",
"Note: Osmotic pressure is the force per unti area exerted by a solution through osmosis across a semipermeable membrane.
"
],
"guid": "qN|R`!lN}~",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"Osmotic pressure experiments in a {{c1::U-tube}} apparatus are use to measure the mass of polymers, including natural polymers like proteins.",
"Note: The two sides of the U-tube are separated by a semipermeable membrane, which segregates molecules according to size.
"
],
"guid": "u5qMY",
"note_model_uuid": "8ce8b6b6-7e07-11ec-8be0-089e01f8de33",
"tags": [
"Benoni::GEN-CHEM::Section-VI:Phases-Changes"
]
},
{
"__type__": "Note",
"fields": [
"The {{c1::condosity}} of a solution is defined as the molar concentration of an aqueous sodium chloride solution that has the same specific conductance as the aqueous salt solution. ",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condosity
The\n concentration ( in molarity) of a solution of NaCL which is used as a \nbaseline to evaluate how well other solutions will conduct electricity. \nThe more metal character in an element, the higher its condosity value.
Ex: 2M KCl solution will have a condosity value greater than 2 because K has more of a metal character than does Na.